Notes
UNIT: 1 Molecules and their
Interaction Relevant to Biology
A. Structure of atoms, molecules and
chemical bonds.
B. Composition, structure and
function of biomolecules (Carbohydrates
, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids and vitamins).
, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids and vitamins).
C. Stablizing interactions (Vander
Waals, electrostatic, hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interaction, etc.).
D. Principles of biophysical
chemistry (pH, buffer, reaction kinetics, thermodynamics, colligative
properties).
E. Bioenergetics, glycolysis,
oxidative phosphorylation, coupled reaction, group transfer, biological energy
transducers.
F. Principles of catalysis, enzymes
and enzyme kinetics, enzyme regulation, mechanism of enzyme catalysis,
isozymes.
G. Conformation of proteins
(Ramachandran plot, secondary structure, domains, motif and folds).
H. Conformation of nucleic acids
(helix (A, B, Z), t-RNA, micro-RNA).
I. Stability of proteins and nucleic acids.
J. Metabolism of carbohydrates,
lipids, amino acids nucleotides and vitamins.
UNIT:2 Cellular
Organization
A. Membrane structure and function
(Structure of model membrane, lipid bilayer and membrane protein diffusion,
osmosis, ion channels, active transport, membrane pumps, mechanism of sorting
and regulation of intracellular transport, electrical properties of
membranes).
B. Structural organization and function of intracellular organelles (Cell wall, nucleus, mitochondria,
Golgibodies, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, peroxisomes, plastids, vacuoles,
chloroplast, structure &function of cytoskeleton and its role in
motility).
C. Organization of genes and
chromosomes (Operon, unique and repetitive DNA, interrupted genes, gene
families, structure of chromatin and chromosomes, heterochromatin, euchromatin,
transposons).
D. Cell division and cell cycle
(Mitosis and meiosis, their regulation, steps in cell cycle, regulation and
control of cell cycle).
E. Microbial Physiology (Growth yield
and characteristics, strategies of cell division, stress response)
UNIT: 3 Fundamental
Processes
A. DNA replication, repair and
recombination (Unit of replication, enzymes involved, replication origin and
replication fork, fidelity of replication, extrachromosomal replicons, DNA
damage and repair mechanisms, homologous and site-specific
recombination).
B. RNA synthesis and processing
(transcription factors and machinery, formation of initiation complex,
transcription activator and repressor, RNA polymerases, capping, elongation, and
termination, RNA processing, RNA editing, splicing, and polyadenylation,
structure and function of different types of RNA, RNA transport).
C. Protein synthesis and processing
(Ribosome, formation of initiation complex, initiation factors and their
regulation, elongation and elongation factors, termination, genetic code,
aminoacylation of tRNA, tRNAidentity, aminoacyl tRNA synthetase, and
translational proof-reading, translational inhibitors, Post- translational
modification of proteins).
D. Control of gene expression at
transcription and translation level (regulating the expression of phages,
viruses, prokaryotic and eukaryotic genes, role of chromatin in gene expression
and gene silencing).
UNIT: 4 Cell Communication
and Cell Signaling
A. Host parasite interaction
:Recognition and entry processes of different pathogens like bacteria, viruses
into animal and plant host cells, alteration of host cell behavior by pathogens,
virus-induced cell transformation, pathogen-induced diseases in animals and
plants, cell-cell fusion in both normal and abnormal cells.
B. Cell signalling: Hormones and
their receptors, cell surface receptor, signaling through G- protein coupled
receptors, signal transduction pathways, second messengers, regulation of
signaling pathways, bacterial and plant two-component systems, light signaling
in plants, bacterial chemotaxis and quorum sensing.
C. Cellular communication: Regulation
of hematopoiesis, general principles of cell communication, cell adhesion and
roles of different adhesion molecules, gap junctions, extracellular matrix,
integrins. neurotransmission and its regulation.
D. Cancer :Genetic rearrangements in
progenitor cells, oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, cancer and the cell cycle,
virus-induced cancer, metastasis, interaction of cancer cells with normal cells,
apoptosis, therapeutic interventions of uncontrolled cell growth.
E. Innate and adaptive immune system:
Cells and molecules involved in innate and adaptive immunity, antigens,
antigenicity and immunogenicity. B and T cell epitopes, structure and function
of antibody molecules. Generation of antibody diversity, monoclonal antibodies,
antibody engineering, antigen-antibody interactions, MHC molecules, antigen
processing and presentation, activation and differentiation of B and T cells, B
and T cell receptors, humoral and cell-mediated immune responses, primary and
secondary immune modulation, the complement system, Toll-like receptors,
cell-mediated effector functions, inflammation, hypersensitivity and
autoimmunity, immune response during bacterial (tuberculosis), parasitic
(malaria) and viral (HIV) infections,congenital and acquired immunodeficiencies,
vaccines.
UNIT: 5 Developmental
Biology
A. Basic concepts of development :
Potency, commitment, specification, induction, competence, determination and
differentiation; morphogenetic gradients; cell fate and cell lineages; stem
cells; genomic equivalence and the cytoplasmic determinants; imprinting; mutants
and transgenics in analysis of development
B. Gametogenesis, fertilization and
early development: Production of gametes, cell surface molecules in sperm-egg
recognition in animals; embryo sac development and double fertilization in
plants; zygote formation, cleavage, blastula formation, embryonic fields,
gastrulation and formation of germ layers in animals; embryogenesis,
establishment of symmetry in plants; seed formation and germination.
C. Morphogenesis and organogenesis in
animals : Cell aggregation and differentiation in Dictyostelium; axes and
pattern formation in Drosophila, amphibia and chick; organogenesis –
vulva formation in Caenorhabditis elegans, eye lens induction, limb
development and regeneration in vertebrates; differentiation of neurons, post
embryonic development- larval formation, metamorphosis; environmental regulation
of normal development; sex determination.
D. Morphogenesis and
organogenesis in plants: Organization of shoot and root apical meristem; shoot
and root development; leaf development and phyllotaxy; transition to flowering,
floral meristems and floral development in Arabidopsis and
Antirrhinum
E. Programmed cell death, aging and
senescence
UNIT: 6 System Physiology –
Plant
A. Photosynthesis - Light harvesting
complexes; mechanisms of electron transport; photoprotective mechanisms; CO
fixation-C3 , C4 and CAM pathways.
B. Respiration and photorespiration –
Citric acid cycle; plant mitochondrial electron transport and ATP synthesis;
alternate oxidase; photorespiratory pathway.
C. Nitrogen metabolism - Nitrate and
ammonium assimilation; amino acid biosynthesis.
D. Plant hormones – Biosynthesis,
storage, breakdown and transport; physiological effects and mechanisms of
action.
E. Sensory photobiology - Structure,
function and mechanisms of action of phytochromes, cryptochromes and
phototropins; stomatal movement; photoperiodism and biological clocks.
F. Solute transport and
photoassimilate translocation – uptake, transport and translocation of water,
ions, solutes and macromolecules from soil, through cells, across membranes,
through xylem and phloem; transpiration; mechanisms of loading and unloading of
photoassimilates.
G. Secondary metabolites -
Biosynthesis of terpenes, phenols and nitrogenous compounds and their
roles.
H. Stress physiology – Responses of
plants to biotic (pathogen and insects) and abiotic (water, temperature and
salt) stresses.
UNIT: 7 System Physiology –
Animal
A. Blood and circulation - Blood
corpuscles, haemopoiesis and formed elements, plasma function, blood volume,
blood volume regulation, blood groups, haemoglobin, immunity,
haemostasis.
B. Cardiovascular System- Comparative
anatomy of heart structure, myogenic heart, specialized tissue, ECG – its
principle and significance, cardiac cycle, heart as a pump, blood pressure,
neural and chemical regulation of all above.
C. Respiratory system - Comparison of
respiration in different species, anatomical considerations, transport of gases,
exchange of gases, waste elimination, neural and chemical regulation of
respiration.
D. Nervous system - Neurons, action
potential, gross neuroanatomy of the brain and spinal cord, central and
peripheral nervous system, neural control of muscle tone and posture.
E. Sense organs - Vision, hearing and
tactile response.
F. Excretory system - Comparative
physiology of excretion, kidney, urine formation, urine concentration, waste
elimination, micturition, regulation of water balance, blood volume, blood
pressure, electrolyte
G. balance, acid-base balance.
H. Thermoregulation - Comfort zone,
body temperature – physical, chemical, neural regulation,
acclimatization.
I. Stress and adaptation
J. Digestive system - Digestion,
absorption, energy balance, BMR.
K. Endocrinology and reproduction -
Endocrine glands, basic mechanism of hormone action, hormones and diseases;
reproductive processes, gametogenesis, ovulation, neuroendocrine
regulation
UNIT: 8 Inheritance
Biology
A. Mendelian principles
: Dominance, segregation, independent assortment.
B. Concept of gene :
Allele, multiple alleles, pseudoallele, complementation tests
C. Extensions of
Mendelian principles: Codominance, incomplete dominance, gene interactions,
pleiotropy, genomic imprinting, penetrance and expressivity, phenocopy, linkage
and crossing over, sex linkage, sex limited and sex influenced
characters.
D. Gene mapping methods
: Linkage maps, tetrad analysis, mapping with molecular markers, mapping by
using somatic cell hybrids, development of mapping population in
plants.
E. Extra chromosomal
inheritance: Inheritance of Mitochondrial and chloroplast genes, maternal
inheritance.
F. Microbial genetics:
Methods of genetic transfers transformation,conjugation, transduction and
sexduction, mapping genes by interrupted mating, fine structure analysis of
genes.
G. Human genetics :
Pedigree analysis, lod score for linkage testing, karyotypes, genetic
disorders.
H. Quantitative genetics
: Polygenic inheritance, heritability and its measurements, QTL
mapping.
I. Mutation : Types,
causes and detection, mutant types – lethal, conditional, biochemica loss of
function, gain of function, germinal verses somatic mutants, insertional
mutagenesis.
J. Structural and
numerical alterations of chromosomes : Deletion, duplication, inversion,
translocation, ploidy and their genetic implications.
K. Recombination :
Homologous and non-homologous recombination including
transposition.
UNIT: 9 Diversity of Life
Forms
A. Principles & methods of
taxonomy: Concepts of species and hierarchical taxa, biological nomenclature,
classical & quantititative methods of taxonomy of plants, animals and
microorganisms.
B. Levels of structural organization:
Unicellular, colonial and multicellular forms. Levels of organization of
tissues, organs & systems. Comparative anatomy, adaptive radiation, adaptive
modifications.
C. Outline classification of plants,
animals & microorganisms: Important criteria used for classification in each
taxon. Classification of plants, animals and microorganisms. Evolutionary
relationships among taxa.
D. Natural history of Indian
subcontinent: Major habitat types of the subcontinent, geographic origins and
migrations of species. Comman Indian mammals, birds. Seasonality and phenology
of the subcontinent.
E. Organisms of health &
agricultural importance: Common parasites and pathogens of humans, domestic
animals and crops.
F. Organisms of conservation concern:
Rare, endangered species. Conservation strategies.
UNIT: 10 Ecological
Principles
A. The Environment: Physical
environment; biotic environment; biotic and abiotic interactions.
B. Habitat and Niche: Concept of
habitat and niche; niche width and overlap; fundamental and realized
niche;resource partitioning; character displacement.
C. Population Ecology:
Characteristics of a population; population growth curves; population
regulation; life historystrategies (r and K selection); concept of
metapopulation – demes and dispersal, interdemic extinctions, age structured
populations.
D. Species Interactions: Types of
interactions, interspecific competition, herbivory, carnivory, pollination,
symbiosis.
E. Community Ecology: Nature of
communities; community structure and attributes; levels of species diversity and
its measurement; edges and ecotones.
F. Ecological Succession: Types;
mechanisms; changes involved in succession; concept of climax.
G. Ecosystem Ecology: Ecosystem
structure; ecosystem function; energy flow and mineral cycling (C,N,P); primary
production and decomposition; structure and function of some Indian ecosystems:
terrestrial (forest, grassland) and aquatic (fresh water, marine,
eustarine).
H. Biogeography: Major terrestrial
biomes; theory of island biogeography; biogeographical zones of India.
I. Applied Ecology: Environmental
pollution; global environmental change; biodiversity: status, monitoring and
documentation; major drivers of biodiversity change; biodiversity management
approaches.
J. Conservation Biology: Principles
of conservation, major approaches to management, Indian case studies on
conservation/management strategy (Project Tiger, Biosphere reserves).
UNIT: 11 Evolution and
Behavior
A. Emergence of evolutionary
thoughts: Lamarck Darwin–concepts of variation, adaptation, struggle, fitness
and natural selection; Mendelism; Spontaneity of mutations; The evolutionary
synthesis.
B. Origin of cells and unicellular
evolution: Origin of basic biological molecules; Abiotic synthesis of organic
monomers and polymers; Concept of Oparin and Haldane; Experiement of Miller
(1953); The first cell; Evolution of prokaryotes; Origin of eukaryotic cells;
Evolution of unicellular eukaryotes; Anaerobic metabolism, photosynthesis and
aerobic metabolism.
C. Paleontology and Evolutionary
History: The evolutionary time scale; Eras, periods and epoch; Major events in
the evolutionary time scale; Origins of unicellular and multi cellular
organisms; Major groups of plants and animals; Stages in primate evolution
including Homo.
D. Molecular Evolution: Concepts of
neutral evolution, molecular divergence and molecular clocks; Molecular tools in
phylogeny, classification and identification; Protein and nucleotide sequence
analysis; origin of new genes and proteins; Gene duplication and
divergence.
E. The Mechanisms: Population
genetics – Populations, Gene pool, Gene frequency; Hardy-Weinberg Law; concepts
and rate of change in gene frequency through natural selection, migration and
random genetic drift; Adaptive radiation; Isolating mechanisms; Speciation;
Allopatricity and Sympatricity; Convergent evolution; Sexual selection; Co-
evolution.
F. Brain, Behavior and Evolution:
Approaches and methods in study of behavior;Proximate and ultimate causation;
Altruism and evolution-Group selection, Kin selection, Reciprocal altruism;
Neural basis of learning, memory, cognition, sleep and arousal; Biological
clocks; Development of behavior; Social communication; Social dominance; Use of
space and territoriality; Mating systems, Parental investment and Reproductive
success; Parental care; Aggressive behavior; Habitat selection and optimality in
foraging; Migration, orientation and navigation; Domestication and behavioral
changes.
UNIT: 12 Applied
Biology
A. Microbial fermentation and
production of small and macro molecules.
B. Application of immunological
principles, vaccines, diagnostics. Tissue and cell culture methods for plants
and animals.
C. Transgenic animals and plants,
molecular approaches to diagnosis and strain identification.
D. Genomics and its application to
health and agriculture, including gene therapy.
E. Bioresource and uses of
biodiversity.
F. Breeding in plants and animals,
including marker – assisted selection
G. Bioremediation and
phytoremediation
H. Biosensors
UNIT: 13 Methods in
Biology
A. Molecular Biology and Recombinant
DNA methods: Isolation and purification of RNA, DNA (genomic and plasmid) and
proteins, different separation methods. Analysis of RNA, DNA and proteins by one
and two dimensional gel electrophoresis, Isoelectric focusing gels. Molecular
cloning of DNA or RNA fragments in bacterial and eukaryotic systems. Expression
of recombinant proteins using bacterial, animal and plant vectors. Isolation of
specific nucleic acid sequences Generation of genomic and cDNA libraries in
plasmid, phage, cosmid, BAC and YAC vectors. In vitro mutagenesis and deletion
techniques, gene knock out in bacterial and eukaryotic organisms. Protein
sequencing methods, detection of post translation modification of proteins. DNA
sequencing methods, strategies for genome sequencing. Methods for analysis of
gene expression at RNA and protein level, large scale expression, such as
microarray based techniques Isolation, separation and analysis of carbohydrate
and lipid molecules RFLP, RAPDand AFLP techniques
B. Histochemical and
Immunotechniques: Antibody generation, Detection of molecules using ELISA, RIA,
western blot, immunoprecipitation, fluocytometry and immunofluorescence
microscopy, detection of molecules in living cells, in situ localization by
techniques such as FISH and GISH.
C. Biophysical Method: Molecular
analysis using UV/visible, fluorescence, circular dichroism, NMR and ESR
spectroscopy Molecular structure determination using X-ray diffraction and NMR,
Molecular analysis using light scattering, different types of mass spectrometry
and surface plasma resonance methods.
D. Statisitcal Methods: Measures of
central tendency and dispersal; probability distributions (Binomial, Poisson and
normal); Sampling distribution; Difference between parametric and non-parametric
statistics; Confidence Interval; Errors; Levels of significance; Regression and
Correlation; t-test; Analysis of variance; X2 test; Basic introduction to
Muetrovariate statistics, etc.
E. Radiolabeling techniques:
Detection and measurement of different types of radioisotopes normally used in
biology, incorporation of radioisotopes in biological tissues and cells,
molecular imaging of radioactive material, safety guidelines.
F. Microscopic techniques:
Visulization of cells and subcellular components by light microscopy, resolving
powers of different microscopes, microscopy of living cells, scanning and
transmission microscopes, different fixation and staining techniques for EM,
freeze-etch and freeze- fracture methods for EM, image processing methods in
microscopy.
G. Electrophysiological methods:
Single neuron recording, patch-clamp recording, ECG, Brain activity recording,
lesion and stimulation of brain, pharmacological testing, PET, MRI, fMRI,
CAT.
H. Methods in field biology: Methods
of estimating population density of animals and plants, ranging patterns through
direct, indirect and remote observations, sampling methods in the study of
behaviour, habitat characterization: ground and remote sensing
methods.